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CHAPTER XXXIX
  1. In the first Person plural, feminine forms of verbs are now getting obsolete. Now-a-days, women speak of themselves as ۟ , ۟ ţ, ۟ ܃ etc. In the singular, however, the Verb has the singular forms ۻ, ųŠ, ܃ etc.

    2. The usage has naturally affected Adjectives also, and in some places, it is no longer usual for women to say ۟ (`we are all right', or, `we are doing well'). They would rather say ۟ .

    This usage (or reluctance of women to retain indistinctive feminine Gender with rreference to themselves !) has further resulted in their preference for Plural over Singular of the first Person Pronoun, since Masculine forms of Sinngular Verbs ( ۻ etc.) are, at present, confined strictly to Masculinc Subjects. A modern woman would, thus, speak of herself as ۟ ܽ rather than as ۻ.

    NUMBER

  2. With Nouns, the honorific plural (78-a) is restricted to the direct case, and even so only Masculine - Nous of the type (80-b) have the Plura forms.

    3. Thus, speaking of a single person, we can say ܈ ܽ ܇ `his son has come'; but not ܈ ܽܽ ܽ ܺ܂ܽ which would mean, `call their sons'. For a single son, we can only say ܈ ܽ ܽ ܺ܂ܽ, whether we `honour' the son or not. ܈ ܽ ܺ܇ ܇ `his son was called', however, is all right, since hereܽ is in the direct case (the Verb being Passive).

    Words like ܍, ܟ, etc., of course, do not change (80-exceptions); only the Verbs and the Adjectives referring to them have the plural form:

    ܽ ܽ ܍ ܇ `my younger uncle has come,.

    Feminine nouns, similarly, remain unchanged, the Verb alone being in the plural ܽ (not ܇) ܃ `my mother has come'; ܈ (not š ) `his daughter says'.

    The Pronouns referring to any Noun in honorific plural have the regular plural forms : ܽ ܽ ܍ `this is my uncle',

    ܽ ܽ ܹۛ `she is my elder sister'.

    ܫܹ ť ۽ , ܈ ܊ ܾܹ ܽ `the President is arriving here to-morrow. Preparations for his welcome are afoot'.

    ܽ (97)

  3. (a) A pronoun referring to a person, when used as an object always attaches ܽ or its equivalents - or - . We can say ܟ ܽ ڽ (objectival construction) or ܟ ܽ ܽ ڽ (neutral construction). But we cannot say ܟ ܽ ڽ. When refers to etc., we must say ܟ ܽ ܽ (܈ܽ) ڽ. This is due to the fact that ܽ or ܈ܽ refers is to a particular being. Consequently, ܟ ܽ ڽ is slipshod.

    4. (b) ܣܽ ܽ ň ڡ ܡ, ܈ܛܽ ܽ ܣ ڡ ܇ etc. are formal or affected, though frequently met with. Inanimate objects had better be used without ܽ (ܣ ſ ڇ ܇, ܈ܛ ܣ ڇ ܇) except with Transitive Verbs of incomplete predication, such as, ܣܽ ܽ ܛ ڡ ܡ, ܈ܛܽ ܽ ܹܽ ܛ ܡ ܡ.

  4. With Nouns denoting time, both ܽ and ܽ are used. ܽ is generally attached when the Noun denotes a point of time and ܽ when it denotes a period.

    5. ܽ = `at' and ܽ = `during'.

    ܽ ܡ `he came at night',
    ܽ ܡ `he came during the night'

    ܽ and ܽ may both be omiotted iwhen the Noan is qualified :

    ť (ܽ, ܽ) ܺ ơ ţ ۽ ܽ? `What were you doing last night?'
    ڛ ܺ ơܽ ܇? `Why did you not turn up that day?'

    But ڛ ܽ ܂ܽ, ڛ ܽ ܛ ܟ ţܽ. ܽ is, however, not omitted with Nouns denoting days of the week or dates :

    ܽܨܣ ܽ, ܿ ܣ ܽ etc.

  5. (a) ܽ (-, -۽) is regularly attached to an object receiving greetings, homage, salute, thanks, congratulations, censure, etc. (with or without a Verb requiring two objects):

ܺ ܽ ϵܟ, ܜ܈ܽ ܚ܃, ĩܣ ܽ ܛܨ, ƈܣ ۾ ܺ۽!

(b) ܽ (-, -۽) is also attached for denoting concern, gain, loss etc. to a person (cf 266).

ܺ۽ ܬܽ ơ ܥܝ ! `how are you concerned with this?,'

ܜ܈ܽ ơ ۾ ? `why do you bother ?,'

ܟ ܽ ܞ ۺ ܹ ۺ `Ram gained, lost'.

ܽ (98)

  1. ܽ denotes cause in ܍ ܽ ܽ ٣ ۾, and association in ܨܵ ܟ ܽ or ܽۛ ܺܬܽ ܥ. , ܟ and in these sentences are not objects (towards which action is directed), although in the corresponding English sentences `the child fears the dogs', `Ravana fought Ram', and `Mohan met me', dog, Ravana and me would be treated as objects.

    2. (101)

  2. A Noun or Pronoun + and the corresponding forms of ܽ, ܽ etc. are, in fact, adjectives (eding in- ).

ܟ ܝ is `Ram-owned book', and

ܽܽ is `gold-made bangle'.

It is due to the adjectival nature of these , forms that they change to , , and as all - ending adjectives do.

315. A peculiar use of , , in its oblique form , , is met with in such sentences as:-

܏ ܹܡ `a king had three queens',

ܽ ܹۛ ۾ `I have one sister'.

These or forms are, obviously, not adjectival: the Nouns following them are Feminine. They denote, like the English `have', experience of the existence of `queens' and `sister' as related to `king' and `I'. This emphasis is not upon the relationship or possession, but upon the fact that they exist. (we can perhaps supply words like ܣ ܽ, ܬ, after ܏ , ܽ etc.) ܏ ܹܡ , on the other hand, empgasises the relationship and would mean `there were three queens living with or married to a king'.

ܺܽ , ܺ܈ܽ (114)

  1. With pronouns, the ܽ forms and ܽ, a pronominal case-sign would have been completely discarded but for its utility in the adjectival use of Pronouns. In such phrases as ܺ ܽ ܃, ܽܽ ܽ ܺ܂ܽ. (127), - or -۽ forms cannot be used.

    2. ܛ (120

  2. ܛ (reflexive, like ܽ, ܽ, ܺܣ, ܈ etc.) is an Adjective. It replaces the latter in every case where they refer to the logical subject of the sentence (``the doer''), whether it (the subject) is in the Direct Case, or in the Oblique Case with ܽ, or ܽ (in Passive Voice), or with ܽ (266-70).

    3. In the direct case and oblique with ܽ, the logical subject is identical with the grammatical : ܛ ܟ ţ ۻ, ܽ ܛ ܟ š :

    A logical subject in the oblique with ܽ or ܽ is not the grammatical subject-that position is occupied by the logical object :

    ܺ܈ܽ (ܺܽ) ܛ ܟ ܊ ۾,

    ܺܬܽ ܛ ܟ ܽ.

    In all the four sentences, ܛ has replaced ܽ because (the person referred to by ܽ) is the logical subject in all the four.

    But in a sentence like ܺܬܽ ܽ ܃ ܽ , ܽ cannot be replaced by ܛܽ because ܃ is the subject here and not .

  3. Irregular or loose use of ܛ is met with in such sentences as ܽ ܛܽ ܣ ܽ ܽ or ܽ ܈ ܣ ܽ ܽ `send him to his house.' The former sentence could also mean `send him to your house', which is really its correct signification, since ܛܽ must refer to the implied subject `you'.
  4. ܛ is sometimes used for denoting ܺܣ (or ܽ)=+۟ܣ (or ܽ) in such sentences as :-

    5. ܈ܛ ܛ ۾ `this house is ours (yours and mine)', where the person spoken to is included in ܛ either, as a matter of fact,or out of friendliness or humility on the part of the speaker (the house actually belonging to the speaker alone).

    A further extension of the ``friendliness or humility'' is achieved by saying ܈ܛ ܜ܈ ۾ for ܈ܛ ܽ ۾.

    Progressive Aspect (170-2)

  5. The progressive form represents an act as going on, as progresing or continuing. It cannot, therefore, be used with such verbs as denote by nature, a fact complete in itself. A Verb likr ܛܛ `toknow' has no progressive forms since `know' denotes a fact, ``not something uncompleted, that is, still going on''. Verbs denoting a state or condition, similarly, do not usually employ the progressive form.

    6. The Present Tense (188)

  6. (a) The terminate forms of the present may refer to Immediate Future :

ܿ ܛܒ ܽ ۻ `I (shall) leave within fifteen minutes' etc.
    1. The progressive form can similarly be used for Immediate Future :

      2. ܾ ۻ `I am just going'.

      It can also be used for Immediate Past :

      ܟ܃ ܽ ۻ `I am just coming from Bombay'.

      The terminate form should not be used in this sense (Immediate Past).

    2. A negative sentence with a Terminate Present may denote `unwillingness, refusal' etc.

ܽ `I won't lift this load',

܏ܣ `I don't like to go to the market',

ܽ ܥ `this horse won't move'.

The Past Tense (194)

  1. (a) The simple past can be used for Immediate Future :

ܜ ܹ܇, ܡ `your proceed, I will follow you'.

(b) conditional sentences, the simple past refers to the future,usually implying some (certain and immediate) consequence:

ܻ ܿ ܡ, ܽ ܒ `if you go there, you shall be thrashad',

܃ ܾ ۟ ܁ `we shall get in as soon as the train arrives.'

    1. The simple past, when used as future conditional, may have the rare progerssive form ۺ, ۺ etc.

      2. ܹ ܟ ܽ ۺ, ܽ ơ ܽ ? `what will happen if he is coming this

      eveing ?',

      ܾ ť ڬ ܏ܽ ܅Š, ܟܡ ܹ ܻ ܽ ۺ ܽ ܥ ܽ ܏ ܇ܗ `I will come to-morrow at ten o'clock; if you are sleeping (asleep) at that hour, you shall be punished [see 262 (b) and 263 (2) ].

      The Future form of ܽ `to be' may be used as a Presumptive (232-c):

    2. ܽ used as a remark or comment upon some statement may express indifference :

܈ ܬ ۺ ܾ ۾ - ܽ `he has a lot of money', `what of it ?' or `what do I care?'

Present Perfect (207)

  1. The Present Perfect is really a past tense, but the past act that it represents is always related to the present. It cannot refer to an act which is wholly past and gone. Thus, we can say ܡ ۾ `the boy has come' only if the boy is still here, whenever he may have come. But we cannot say ť ܡ ۾ ܾ ܏ ܥ ܡ `the boy ``has come'' yesterday and went to-day' because the boy's coming can no longer be related to the present : he is gone. Similarly, we can say ܣ ܽ ܽ ܾܽ ܛ ܏ ۺ `there have been great kings like Ashok in India' because India exists and we can relate its past to its present. We cannot, however, say ܛ͊ܺ ܽ ܒܜܺ ܽ ܏ܚܛ ܛܡ ۾ `Chandragupta ``has made'' Pataliputra his capital', because neither Chandragupta nor Pataliputra now exists.

    2. It is, therefore, not correct to call this tense `Recent Past' (ܬܛ ܻ) as has been done by many grammarians. The present perfect has nothing whatever to do with the recentness or remoteness of a past action.

    Habitual Past (212)

  2. (a) The Habitual Past represents an action as habitually or regularly done in the past. It is neither ``Past Imperfect'' nor ``Progressive Past'' Nor can it, in modern Hindi, refer to a Particular action of the past, for which the simple past (or past progressive ) must be used. It is not correct to say, for example, ť ܟ ť . A few verbs, however, represent action as a fact complete in itself (See 320), which consequently cannot be habitual. It is only in the case of such verbs that Past Habitual represents a particular action.

ܛ `he knew'. ܛ cannot mean `he used to know'. `knowing a thing' cannot be repeated!

  1. The forms etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ܡ (See 202 and 216).

Participles (239)

  1. The Present Participle represents an action as proceeding or progressing. It is progressive by nature, although with ۾ and , ot assumes a terminate chararacter. The Present Participle, therefore, has no need of a fresh Progressive form. However, a ۺ is sometimes attached to a Present Participle in order to make it a clear progressive (241-b and 262-d).

    2. The progressive of Present Participle is a further attempt at expressing the progressive aspect with perfect clarity, and forms like ܾ `the running train' and ܣ ܫ `the falling rain' are being used especially in poetry. They are, however, hardly necessary.

  2. The Past Participle of a Transitive Verb is passive by nature. It represents an action as completed, and at the same time qualifies the object. (The past participle of an Intransitive Verb, which has no object, qualifies the subject). There is, thus, no need of a fresh passive forms with ܡ or ۺ (272-b) serrve only to make the passive sense more definite. ۺ cna be attached to Intransitive Verbs also, but never ܡ. The ܡ in ܥ ܡ (Intransitive) is not of passive origin. It is the past participle form of the Subsidiary Verb ܛ in the compound Verb ܥ ܛ `go away'.