53. Both the Subject and the Predicate may consist of more than one word. In `the servant brought books', the servant is the Subject and brought books is the Predicate. Similarly, in `some of my friends are absent to-day', some of my friends is the Subject, and are absent to-day is the Predicate. In `he is a boy' he is the Subject and is a boy is the Predicate. In `he turned mad', he is the Subject and turned mad is the Predicate.

54. An important part of the Predicate is that which denotes ``action'' or ``being'' or ``becoming''. Comes and brought in the above sentences dentoe ``being'' and turned denotes ``becoming''. There can ordinarily be no Predicate without a word denoting ``action'', or ``being'', or ``becoming'', or ``happening'' etc. These words are called VERBS. See 64 below.

1. But while Verb is an important part of Predicate, it (the predicate) occasionally, requires some other words also to complete the meaning. In `Rama goes' the meaning is complete with the Verb goes alone, and no other word is needed. But in `the servant brought books', brought (verb) alone would not do unless we say (in reply to the question `brought what?', to which the reply here would obviously be `absent '. mIn `he is a boy', it is the word boy which completes the Predicate (`is what?'-is a boy').
2. It will, however, be noticed that there is a difference in the functions of the words books, absent and boy. Absent and boy refer to the Subjects them selves. It is the friends who are absent. It is he who is a boy. Absent and friends, he and boy are identical. But books does not refer to the Subject (servant). The Servant has, in fact, done something to or of the books: he has brought them. The action denoted by the Verb brought is exerted upon, or directed towards books, Such words are called objects or a Verb. In `I saw him.' or `he ate a fruit', or `the thief stole my money' - him, fruit and money are the objects of saw, ate and stole respectively.
3. An object, thus, is a word or words denothing a being or a thing ``upon which the action denoted by the Verb is exerted,'' or towards whcih the action is directed. Verbs having an object are called Transitive.
4. The words absent and boy in the two sentences `my friends are absent; and `he is a boy' are NOT Objects, but Predicative words (words occurring in the predicate) referring to the Subject. The Verbs are and is do not denote any action that can be exerted upon an Object : they have no Object. SuchVerbs are called Intransitive.
5. Predicative words may sometimes refer also to the Object. In `they made him a king, the Predicate in which made is the Verb, and him the Object. The remaining word king obviously refers to him. The person denoted by him is not different from that denoted by king. We cannot, however, say that king is the Object of made. For it is not a king who has been made something, but it is him who has been made a king. The word king, therefore, is only a predicative word referring to the Object.
6. Every word in a sentence performs a definite function. Based upon these functions, there are eight categories or classes of words which are called ``Parts of Speech''.

They are :- Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, preposition, Conjunction and Interjection.

7. (a) A Noun is the name of a living being or a lifeless thing (including such abstract things as quality, state, action, etc.).
8. A Proper Noun is the name of a particular being or thing : Rama, Sita, India, Bombay, Ganga.
9. A Common Noun is the name of a class of beings or things : man, woman, country, city, river.
10. Nouns denoting male beings are said to have the Mascutine Gender : man, boy, bull. Nouns denoting female beings have Feminine Gender : woman, girl, cow. Those denoting inanimate things have Neuter Gender: house, forest, sea. Nouns denoting male or female being have Common Gender : child, friend, parent.
11. Nouns denoting one person or thing are said to be in the Singular Number : man, boy, woman, house. Those denoting more than one Person or thing are said to be in the Plural Number : men, boys, women, houses.
12. A Noun may function as Subject : ` the boy comes'. It may function as an Object : `he reads a book'. It may function as a Predicative word referring to the Subject : `he is a man'; or to the Object : `they elected him the President'. It may, further, have some other relation (such as possession, separation, means, location, etc.) with the other words in the sentence : Rama's book'; `he fell from the tree'; `I cut it with a knife'; `I live in this house'. All such grammatical relations which a noun has with other words in the sentence, are usually indicated with the help of prepositions such as from and in, in the above sentences. Sometimes the grammatical relations are indicated by slightly modifying the noun (Rama's), and sometimes merely by the context or by the positions of the Nouns in the sentence : `the sevant brought a book'. In Hindi, forms of Nouns are modified to a greater extent than in English for expressing the grammatical relations. These forms of a noun are called Cases. (Sometimes the grammatical relations themselves are also called Cases.)

1. A pronoun is a word whcih can be used in place of a Noun : he, she, it, I, yoy, my, your, what, who. A pronoun, like a Noun, is affected by Gender, Number and Case; but it changes to a much greater extent : he, she, you, your, I, me, my.
2. An Adjective is a word which qualifies (describes some quality of) a Noun : a good man, a bad boy, a red rose, an honest person. An Adjective has the same Gender, Number and the Case as the noun which it qualifies.
3. (a) A Verb is a word denoting action, being, or becoming, with some reference to time and manner and used as Predicate (52): `Rama sleeps'; `he reads a book'; `they are my friends'; `he became mad'; `I gave him two books'.

(b) A Verb may be Transitive, or Intransitive (57 and 58) : reads and gave in the above sentences are Transitive, sleeps, are and became are Intransitive.

(c) Some Verbs have two Objects: `I gave him two books' therefore, is the ``Dorect'', or the ``primary'' Object, and him is the ``Indirect'' or the ``Secondary'' Object. (In most of such cases, the Primary Object answers the question ``what?'', and the Secondary Object answers ``Whom?'').

(d) A Verb may denote an action as taking place at present: `he is going'; or as having taken place in the past : `he went'; or due to take place in the Future: `he will go'. It may further express a command or a wish: `go there,' `may he be happy'; or ask a question : `Will you come?'

4. An Adverb is a word that modifies or qualifies a Verb : `he came early'; `he is here'; `he went away'.
5. A Preposition is a word indicating a relation between a Noun or Pronoun and a Noun, Pronoun or Verb : `this book is for you'; `he gave me a bunch of flowers'; `he lives in this house'; ` come with me'.

In Englisn, a Prepositon is usually placed before the Noun which it governs or relates to another word. For in the first sentence governs you.

But in Hindi, most of the Prepositions ar placed after the Noun which they govern, and may, therefore, be called ``Post-Position''( see 95)

6. A Conjunction is a word which joins together or connects words, setences, or parts of a sentence : `brother and sister came'; `he or I will go'; `you may come and work here'; `Rama is here, but his brother is gone'.
7. An Interjection is a word expressing an emotion (pain, pleasure, anger, surprise, dislike, disgust etc.) Oh! Ah! Alas! What! Fie upon you !
8. Apart from the above-mentioned classification into ``Parts of Speech'', Which is based upon their functions in a sentence, Hindi words may be further divided into four classes according to their origin :-

1. The Native Indian Elements

1. Tadbhava (���Þܨ�) `born of that' i.e. derived from Sanskrit and modified This forms the largest class of Hindi words, most of the Nouns and Adjectives, and almost all the Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections being derived from Sanskrit (through the Prakrit and the Apabhransa languages).

Ecamples:-

�ܘ� `hand' from Sanskrit hast;

��ƈ�� `ripe' from Sanskrit pakv;

�ܻ `you' from Sanskrit tvam;

��ܛ�� `to go' from Sanskrit (root) ya;

�܊ܽ `in the front, before' from Sanskrit agre :

�ť� `Yesterday' or tomorrow' from Sanskrit Kalve `in the morning, morrow';

�ܾ� `and' from Sanskrit apara `also',

��� `O' `Oh'! = Sanskrit are, etc.

2. Tatsama (����ܟ�) `the same as that' i.e. borrowed from Sanskrit and preserved intact. This is the second largest group of words in modern Hindi, especially literary Hindi. The majority of the words of the class are Nouns and Adjectives; a few are Adverbs, Prepositions adn Conjunctions; but hardly any Verbs and Pronouns.

Examples:-

�܏�� `king', ��ܫ�� `language', ������ `mother', ������ `father', ���� `woman', ��ܽ�ܛ� `food or meal', �ܿ�ܿ�� `relation or connection, �ܚܺ� `sweet', �ܺ�ڣ `beautiful', ��ܟ� `excellent', ����� `known', ������ or �ܻ�� `past', ����ğ�ܛ� `present', �ܹ�ܫ�� `future', ��ܡ�: `often, occasionally', ���: `therefore' ��ܨ�� `or', etc.

2 (a). Semi-tatsama (����-����ܟ�). Under this head are included words borrowed directly from Sanskrit (not inherited through Prakrit and Apabhrabsa) and modified to suit the Hindi speech. Such are, for example, �ܣ�� (Skt. �ܫ��) `year', ��ܛ� (Skt. ����) `jewel', �܊��� (Skt.�����) `devotee', �ţ�� (Skt. �ş��) `deed, fate', ��ũܛ� (Skt, ��ū��) `Krsna', ������ (Skt. �ܾ���) `patience, courage', ��ܣ�� (Skt. ��ܡ��) `interest, pursuit, ceremony'. The majority of these are confined to colloquial Hindi. Some have also the corresponding Tadbhava forms occasionally with a modification of meaning. Thus, corresponding to �ţ��, there is the Tadbhava ��ܟ� meaning `work, duty'; corresponding to ��ܣ��, there is the Tadbhava ��܏� used in the compound ��ܟ�-��܏� `activity, occupation'. The tendency in present day literary Hindi is to restore the original Sanskrit form.

3. Deshi = `local, country-made'. This class includes all such words whose origin is obscure or unknown. A great many of them may have originally come from the Dravidian or Munda languages of Southern India. As examples may be quoted, ��ܽ��� `score, set of twenty', ��ܽ� `blemish', ��»��� `coral' and }�»���� `to seek', etc.

B Foreign Elements

4. Videshi = `foreign i.e. borrowed from Arabic, Persian, Turkish, English, Portuguese, French etc.' The largest number of these words come from Persian, and next to that from English. Many of these borrowed words have become naturalized, either in their original or in a slightly modified form, even in spoken Hindi, and can now hardly be called ``foreign''.

Examples:-

Arbic (mostly through Persian) :- �ŝ� grave', �}ܣܝ� `bad, spoiled', ��܊�{� `paper', ��ܛܻ�� `law' etc.

Persian: - �şܣ `waist', �ş� `less, insufficient' �}�܈� `dust', �ܺ�� `lost, unknown, concealed', ��ܜܬ� `sent back, returned', etc,

Turkish:- ��܈�� `knife', ��ܽ�� `cannon, gun', ��ܩ� `corpse', etc.

English: - �ܒ�� `button', ����� `fee(s)', �ܽ��ܣ `��ܛ� `pin', �ܽ��ܽ�� `petrol', �ܺ��ܬ� `police', �ܽ���ܥ� `pencil', �ܻ� `boot', etc,

Portugese (mostly through Bengali, Gujarati and Marathi): - ��ܟ�ܣ� `wardrobe'. (port. al (r) maris), ��ş���� `shirt', (Port. camis), �şܣ� (Port. camera), �ܽ�� `table' (Port. mesa), ������� `steel' (Port. espada `a sword') ��ܾ��ܡ�� `towel' (Port, toalha), etc.

French:- ��ܣ�ܻ�� `cartridge' (Fr. cartouche), ���Ͻ�� `Englishman' (Fr, Anglais), etc.

For all practical purposes (2) (a), (3) and (4) may be included under (1) ; only (2) has, sometimes, to be treated differently.

No rules can be given for ascertaining the origin of a word. It has to be found from a reliable dictionary.